Woman vs Society Essay Example for Free

Woman vs Society Essay The idea of the individual is ingrained in modern society, where oppression, at any angle, seems foreign and is looked down upon. In contrast, the female characters in Kate Chopin’s The Awakening, Toni Morrison’s Sula, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, are portrayed fighting against the â€Å"man’s world†, an atmosphere present in our country not too long ago. Edna, Jane, and Sula all reject the parameters put upon them by society and attempt to remain separate from it ,yet vary in degree of success due to their preparedness. The needs of individuals take precedence over society’s expectations when they are oppressed; but,if not prepared for the consequences of being outcasted by society, they will inevitably fail. Edna is the least successful among the three women, simply because she was not prepared for her choice of lifestyle. Enda was raised in Kentucky as a Presbyterian, and moved down to the Grand Isle later on. â€Å"Though she had married a Creole,[she] was not thoroughly at home with the Creoles†(Chopin, 12) As such, she is innately opposed to their alien lifestyle. Edna is not confined, but she longs to be separate, distinguished from them: an individual. She recognizes the importance of her identity in saying, â€Å" I would give up the unessential I would give my life for my children; but I wouldn’t give myself† (Chopin, 64). Though her aims were clear, Edna remains chained to society, just by having a husband and children. Edna still attempts to have an affair with Robert, effectively breaking the trust and expectations of everyone around her, yet she cannot fulfill her goal, as even Robert pushes her away for that very reason. It is impossible for her to be independent because of her upbringing. Edna longs to emulate Mademoiselle Reisz, who has reached the pinnacle of independance and freely expresses herself through the piano. The factor which differentiates Reisz from Edna is that she has left society behind, along with the option of family, whereas Edna is held back by that very thing. She sees her own children as â€Å" antagonists who had overpowered and sought to drag her into the soul’s slavery for the rest of her days. But she knew of a way to elude them. †(Chopin, 151). This took the form of Edna’s suicide, resulting in not her escape from oppression, but rather signifying her defeat, acknowledging her inability to overcome society’s grasp on her. Edna was prevented from actively rebelling against society, because her pre-existing commitments prevented her from doing so. In â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, Jane Doe, though confined by her husband, is able to fight for herself to assume some degree of independence. As treatment for her depression, she is put to bedrest by her physician-husband, and comes to terms with the limitation set around her. This limitation is the assumed position of authority that a man is expected to have over a woman, especially his spouse. She says, â€Å"I sometimes fancy that in my condition if I had less opposition and more society and stimulus—but John says the very worst thing I can do is think about my condition, and I confess it always makes me feel bad. So I will let it alone and talk about the house. † (Gilman, 1) Jane has already internalized her husband’s authority into her own mind, even interrupting her train of thought to his instruction. She seems to walk in line with what he is telling her to do at the end, but her own rebellious nature seeps out, marking a descent into madness. These repressed feelings are projected onto her obsession with the wallpaper, where a portrait of Jane’s mind is shown. It is ultimately John’s disregarding of his wife, the hierarchy of the household, that is responsible for Jane’s mental breakdown. He vetoes her smallest wishes, such as when he refuses to switch bedrooms so as not to overindulge her â€Å"fancies. † The barrier of understanding leaves Jane no outlet for her to freely express herself. Thus, she writes. But she does this in secret, saying, â€Å"There comes John, I must put this away- he hates to have me write a word. † (Gilman, 2) Jane is actively disobeying her â€Å"authority†, but in hiding it from him she is still limited by John’s expectations of her, which is her weakness. Without him, she would be free as an individual, but John is her pre-existing conditions that holds her back. Jane likens the rest of the women in the world to her own struggle with John. â€Å"There are so many of those creeping women, and they creep so fast. I wonder if they all come out of that wall-paper as I did? (Gilman, 5) Jane clearly resisted in her situation, and she is specific about the women who she thinks have had to break out of the same resistant cage that she had to. They seem so independent, so much freer than her, and after finally escaping that cage, she feels she can relate her situation to theirs. However, Jane’s struggle has driven her ne arly to insanity, and is now unable to be the individual that she strove to be in the beginning. In recognizing the barrier to her individuality, Jane is able to actively rebel against the constructs set by society against women, but at the same time she submits because of her commitment to John. Putting herself in that position causes her to lose herself as a whole, making all of her struggle in vain. Sula differs from both Edna and Jane in that she defies her place in society at a young age and becomes a model individual. When she was a child, Sula lived in a chaotic household, preferring the quiet one of Nel. Sula is not often characterized as the calm individual, but she is described as being able to â€Å"sit on [Helenes] red-velvet sofa for ten to twenty minutes at a time – still as dawn (Morrison, 29). It is very easy to forget this Sula as the narrative progresses, but this passage shows Sula’s search for identity. She is shaping her self into who she wants to be, marking a contradiction of craving the order that she does not have in her home. This state does not last indefinitely; there is a corner point where she changes into her defiant self. As she recalls from her deathbed, â€Å"The one time she tried to protect Nel, she had cut off her own fingertip and earned not Nels gratitude but her disgust. From then on she had let her emotions dictate her behavior. † (Morrison, 140). To her, this was logical and rational, but receives the complete opposite reaction from what she had hoped for. This is a defining point in her life, which is responsible for the disruption she causes in all of the people who interact with her. Sula returns to the Bottom as an adult, characterized not so much as a person, than as a force of nature. She has accepted the consequence of alienation and rejection The repressive nature of society still confronts her. Eva berates Sula for not marrying or having children, but in response, she states, I dont want to make somebody else. I want to make myself†(Morrison, 92). As a women, she is expected of these things, but it is clear that Sula desires to control her identity. She recognizes that any person or thing that compromises her self-determination will limit her from being an individual, by being bound to society’s standards. Yet even Sula falls prey to to this trap, in her relationship with Ajax. â€Å"There was the morning when she actually wondered if Ajax would come by that day. † (Morrison, 131) Through their encounters, Sula was always cautious to keep him under her control, but that morning reveals an emotional attachment to him, however small. This minor detail turns out to be the beginning of her slow death as an individual- this is to be expected-after a life of such detachment from repressive society, the smallest disturbance would amplify itself to ruin her. Only those who are completely isolated from society are able to withstand its parasitic effect on the individual, but Sula, though prepared for the isolation, is caught off guard, and suffers for it. Women in the times of these books are set under strict guidelines by society, and they all recognize it, and attempt to free themselves by seeking their individual self. Edna, Jane, And Sula vary in degree of success, a product of their upbringing, and their ability or inability to accept the consequences of being an individual. Through these oppressed female characters, we see the various outcome of the sacrifice required for independance, but their ties to society bring them down. Is it ever possible to be a distinct individual in any society? Even Sula, who goes to such extremes, fails. How much more do modern people need to strive for this characteristic? Today’s western thinking has encouraged the idea, but perhaps â€Å"their individual† is not truly as free as it claims to be.

The Media: Creating Controversy to Make a Quick Buck :: Race and the Media Essays

It seems that the world likes controversy because it is everywhere; on television, online, and in the newspaper. In this technology era, we can’t to get away from controversy, due to easy access on our smartphones, tablets, and lab tops. Controversy can be found in many situations in our lives and found in many subjects in the media, for example sex, religion, politics and a lot of time when it comes to race. The first topic discussed will be what is controversy? Next, is controversy need in the media? Then, why is controversy used in the media and is it necessary? As well as should controversial content be removed from the media and would removing controversy content make a difference in any way to the audience. This essay will also discuss how media presents different sides of the issue and how the media affects public opinion on the Travon Martin murder in Florida. Discussing these topics will also help us understand how to decipher controversy, in the way of does contr oversy help resolve or exacerbate controversial situations in the media. Controversy is a lengthy public disagreement or debate over many conflicting opinions. In the media there is no shortage of controversy. It seems that all controversy are over the following topics, politics, religion, sex, economics, finances, culture and race (P. Ferreira, 2013). I would not say controversy is needed in American or even the world. However America and even the entire world were built on controversy (Davenport, 2012). Since we all do not share the same opinions in every aspect or major topics in the world, because of this controversy is created sometimes voluntary and involuntary. What the media does is bring all opinions from within America and around the world to a large group of people, which in turns creates controversy out in the open to the public. Controversy is need in the world, because without it we would not know or learn all other aspects to a specific topic. For example, the crime in America is higher than other countries in the world. Some people would say that it is due to the exorbitant gun-ownership in America (Davenport, 2012). However other people’s opinions say it is not guns that kill people it is people that kill people, and other say it is the people that locate guns illegally that commit most of the killing in America.

Outline and Discuss the Major Roles and Functions of the Guidane Counsellor

Within our Jamaican schools the guidance counseling programmes are designed to implement core principles as stated by the Jamaican school curriculum. Guidance counsellors are the ones who play the role of effectively analyzing and implementing these programmes which ensure that all students are well prepared to manage these â€Å"exciting times†; every student needs support and guidance. This is imperative as they embark upon the academic, social, spiritual and developmental challenges of adolescence; a time of rapid growth and change.Our guidance and counselling programmes offer students the opportunity to develop these characteristics necessary to become successful adults in a fast changing world. The primary goal of guidance and counselling and guidance counsellors is to guide and support overall student development and well-being in three broad areas of student life; while keeping in mind the central tasks of adolescence such as acquiring and assimilating self-knowledge, d eveloping future goals and purposefulness, building strategies to accomplish goals, developing decision-making skills, coping with outcomes of decisions and exploring social relationships.The guidance counsellor is charged with the responsibility of being the one who facilitates positive change in the lives of those in their care especially in the three broad areas. These include ‘Personal/Social Goals’ which entails helping students acquire the inter personal and communication skills to increase their understanding and respect of self and others. Academic Goals’, which helps students develop a wide range of academic skills and become effective agents of their learning, ‘Post Secondary-College Planning Goals’ achieved through information sessions and by making resources available to research and apply to college, students are able to plan and make decisions about their future. John is a fifteen year old student who has recently returned to Jamaica to live with his father. John had left Jamaica at an early age to live with his mother in the Cayman Island. She is now incarcerated in the Cayman Island and so he now has to live with his father.John is having serious problems in school and at home. He has been getting very low grades in class and is sometimes very disrespectful to his teachers especially his female teachers. John also finds it hard to adjust and to make new friends; he resents the woman with whom his father now lives and is now hiding from school and hanging out at the video arcade. John’s teachers and his father have made arrangements for him to have weekly sessions with the schools Guidance Counsellor. The roles of a Guidance Counsellor in any Jamaican school vary.John’s case is just one example of the wide spectrum of psychosocial problems experienced by many Jamaica students who are in need of guidance and support. The role of a counselor in John’s case is vital to his adjustment to his new situation and with him dealing with the pain of his past experiences. Whatever his counsellor does is critical in his survival from his maladjustments. Myric (2003) defines the term ‘role’ as an elusive one. It generally refers to the part that one plays in a given situation. He further gives the definition of function as the way in which a professional carries out his/her part.Function gives attention to various behaviours that might be performed in the role. Guidance and counselling is therefore a necessity in all Jamaican schools. The needs of students especially those at the adolescent stage are overwhelming. As postulated by Makinde (1993) persons at the adolescence stage in life need guidance as they seek to clarify their goals and values, strengthen their interests and aspirations, appreciate their philosophies and cognition and adjust to the norms of society. Some major roles and functions of the guidance counsellors according to Gibson et al. 1999) are to provi de individual counselling, group counselling, work with parents, and consult with teachers and administrators. Guidance counsellors should also conduct classroom guidance instructions and assessment activity and coordinate with community agencies. The Ministry of Education (2009) outlines the major components that comprise roles and functions as: preventative, interventive, supportive administrative and pro professional development. In order to help Jamaican students make the transition from childhood to adulthood, the guidance counsellor’s role is integral in this quest towards the holistic development of these students.How important are these roles and functions in the development of our children, our future? This essay seeks to outline the major roles and functions of a guidance counsellor in our Jamaica school setting and also to examine some of the factors which negatively impact the guidance counsellor in his or her quest towards fulfilling these roles. As a guidance co unsellor the implementation of all the components geared towards the holistic development of students must be considered and implemented. These should be ongoing and emphasis should be placed on classroom guidance as well as group and individual counselling.Ministry of Education (2009) coined preventive measures as proactive initiatives implemented to deter the onset of individual and group problems. These measures and strategies will provide students and others the opportunities to learn skills of conflict resolution and reduction. Guidance Counsellors are able to assist in the planning, implementing and coordinating of orientation designed to help students adjust to new experiences within the school community. The preventative components also help guidance counsellors to promote leadership development of peer counsellors and encourage participation in community service programmes.These programmes also furnish principals and other stakeholders with relevant information concerning s tudents in the various stages of development. As students progress through the different levels of academic life, they are faced with tremendous problems of deciding and selecting their subjects, courses and career choice. This challenge can be alleviated through the professional guidance of the guidance counsellor. The counsellor will assist the students to make rational decisions toward their life goals.Through career development programmes the Guidance counsellors help provide placement services and work experience for the students. Through this kind of programme the counsellor is able to help the students to make the transition from one school level to another or from school to employment, in this way students are better prepared and equipped with skills necessary for the world of work. The guidance counsellor also assists students who although they have been exposed to the options and guidance in a group setting, have not made up their minds as to which area they would like to pursue.These students are usually assisted on an individual basis. Another major role and function of the guidance counsellor includes individual counselling of students. Gibson (1999) defines individual counselling as one-to-one relationship involving a trained counsellor that focuses on some aspects of the client’s adjustment, development, or decision making. This process can therefore help a counsellor develop a close personal relationship and communication base with the student. As such the guidance counsellor in the school can help tudents to develop understanding of self as it relates to their social and psychological world. Students can also be assisted in exploring possibilities relating to their lives and also understanding how to initiate change in their lives. Through individual counselling students will gain a better sense of confidence in the counsellor and will no doubt be more comfortable in discussing and dealing with issues presented. With individual counsell ing the opportunity is there for them to speak freely without the fear that may exist in a group setting.For a student such as John an individual session will help him to deal with underlying issues which have created his bitterness and anger. He would be better able to cope with all the changes with which he is faced. Such an individual counselling session would allow him the framework on which to maximize his true potential and understand his world in order to impact positive change. Saginak (2003) provides additional insights into how effective counsellors can help identify students of multiple intelligences.This finding can help a counsellor care for the different needs of students. For example, the use of journal writing, art, music and poetry has been advocated for many years as effective ways with counselling students. Individual counselling is basically a continuous process as the counsellor seeks to build a relationship with each student he or she comes in contact with. Ind ividual counselling by a guidance counsellor is sometimes the only means of providing some kind of hope for some children. Hence, the counsellor should ensure that a harmonious relationship is built.Although some students are confident to go to a counsellor’s office after being referred by their teacher, parents or peer, some may be reluctant; as such, group sessions will help to cater to the needs of these students. The importance of group counselling (small group, large group) and guidance in schools cannot be overemphasized. According to Johnson (2000), group counselling involves two or more individuals in face-to-face interactions, each aware of positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goal.Myrick (2003) adds value to what Johnson (2000) said that group counselling in school is a unique educational experience in which students can work together to explore their ideas, attitudes, feelings and behavior especially as it relates to personal development and pr ogress in school. For some students this might be the only intervention experience in learning about themselves, others, life task and how to deal with certain confidential issues. It is clear that group counselling helps students to share common interest and concerns.Students like to know that other students are having similar experiences as they are having. Groups are valuable as students are better able to support each other as they struggle together. As such, students are better able to relate to each other in their social contexts. Improvise the opportunity for students for students to learn and live with each other as a team. Gladding (2009), states that students participating in a group develop social relationships and emotional bonds and often become enlightened.Research has also shown Flemming (1999) that group counselling is more effective than individual counselling to address the need of students, especially â€Å"at risk† students. He further asserts that this co ntention is supported through research into violent youths, which suggests that peer group interventions are effective in redirecting peer values, confronting antisocial behavior, teaching problem-solving skills and encouraging pro-social behavior. Dollarhide et al (2003) opines that students in group counselling allow counsellors to expand their awareness of student client.What better way to see how students react in their systems than to witness it first-hand. In essence group counselling in Jamaican schools provide both students and guidance counsellors with a more comprehensive knowledge of what students are faced with on a daily basis, issues can be dealt with and students continue to focus on their goals. As in John’s case, he may not be responsive in a group setting as well as he might be timid or embarrassed to tell his story. Although group counselling can be beneficiary to many students, it has its down side.The nature of group settings can at times bring out comple x and sensitive issues which might require counsellors to speak to teachers and parents to better aid students in this process, hence the need for consultation. Saginak (2003),defines consultation as a three part helping relationship characterized by confidentiality, mutual respect and collegiality, focused on helping the consulted function more effectively with the client. Saginak further states that consultation provides a systematic intervention allowing counsellors to reach into student’s context and mobilize other persons in the student’s support network.In the consultation process the Guidance Counsellor can maximize the opportunity to educate the teachers, parents and community on the developmental issues that students are faced with this level of consultation is vital in Jamaican schools as it provides stakeholders with the assurance in dealing with the issues which may arise with their children. Parents are better able maximize on their roles as caregivers and confidants. This is as a result of the access to cooperative relationship with their child’s Guidance Counsellor.This enables them to better understand their child’s behavior, attitude, relationship and other concerns. In addition, it provides the opportunity for counsellors to consult with parents who are not actively participating in their child’s education. In a case like John’s which is similar to many children in Jamaica, the guidance Counsellor would not only help him to deal with his present problems but also to develop skills that would allow him to be able to cope with other challenging situations which will inevitably occur throughout his lifetime.His parents would also be enlightened as to how their actions influence his state of mind and behaviour and the steps they can take to help him to live a better life. Parents would also have a closer hand on what exactly is going on in the life of their children and would receive information as to whe ther or not their child need further help to cope with different situations. Consultation also helps teachers and administrators in dealing with students who are exhibit anti-social or dysfunctional behaviour.It provides the teacher the opportunity to learn the skills necessary to deal with these children who are problematic. Teachers would understand the adjustments of the curriculum and instructions needed to effect positive change. In his or her role in the Jamaican school system the guidance counsellors also provide consultation to the members of the school community this is deemed necessary as the community is usually the nurturing ground for the members of the school. This in effect filters down to benefiting the student and the entire community.This also fosters a better and more effective communication process between the school and the community. Although not an official role, the guidance counsellor in the Jamaican schools, through community involvement, are often times ca lled upon to lobby for sponsors for different projects these are usually projects undertaken by the counselling department or administration for the funding of different project geared towards students’ development. As stated by Miss Cindy Nemard guidance counsellor at Quest Preparatory, many students benefit from these programmes specially in the public schools where school feeding programmes, school fee payment, sport scholarships, examination fees, uniform to books and other programmes benefit the children based on the collaboration effort of the guidance counsellors and the community members. Miss Nemard further states that this allows the community members through their support of the school a sense of being a part of the school development and progress. They also get to voice their opinion on their hopes and plans for the school and in turn the students.In addition the counsellor gains easier access to engaging families in counselling the process and if necessary collec ting information to assist the police, judge or social worker. The overall benefit from community consultation is immeasurable. She further states that when the stakeholders are involved in the children’s development the school environment is more shaped within the community. To maximize on this the guidance counsellor must have a good programme which will be beneficial towards the total development of the students.Without a plan we have very little hope of achieving the full potential of our dreams and aspirations, similar is the case with a guidance counsellor in achieving his or her objectives. He or she must have a clear idea of the needs of the students and the objectives must be in line with such. The role of the guidance counsellor in this instance is one of being administrator as he or she must not only decide on the objectives but plan careful and effective programme to achieve these goals. These goals must be in line with the Ministry of Education’s guideline s and at the same time cater for the needs of the stakeholders.These programmes must be infused with the school’s curriculum. The counsellor has to maintain records of the process and progress of the guidance programme and all the activities involved, these include career day, orientation of new students, staff and student development seminars, curriculum lessons and consultation time. Myrick (2003) says that a guidance counsellor is like the co-pilot on a plane, responsible for his or her own programme. The question therefore arises: what are the specific ways in which a guidance Counsellor leads?The guidance counsellor at all times has to be involved in planning, coordinating, organizing, assessing and evaluating. The counsellor has to be reliable, impartial and accountable. The guidance counsellor has to be supportive of all stakeholders. Ministry of Education (2010) views supportive as those management activities that establish, maintain and enhance the total guidance and counselling programmes. A full assessment of programmes activities in schools helps the counsellors to plan for future programmes and evaluate to what extent the programme are working or their effectiveness.Ongoing assessment needs to be done for the students to ensure readiness for ongoing learning. As guidance counsellors are seen as helpers who understand and respond to human needs however, he or she must be cognisant of his or her needs as well. With the approval of the Ministry of Education and the school boards counsellors must engage in personal and professional development. According to the Ministry of Education the guidance counsellor must attend conferences, workshops, and meeting.These include those at the Jamaica Association of Guidance Counsellors in Education (JAGCE), the Guidance Counselling Unit and other organizations not exceeding fifteen sessions per year. As the guidance counsellors acquire these skills and knowledge he or she must demonstrate knowledge of the l aw and policies as it relates to education, guidance and counselling, children and adolescent. The counsellor must also abide by the Education act (1980) and the Code of National Ethics of the Jamaica Association of JAGCE Ministry (2009).Being a proactive, knowledgeable individual, a guidance counsellor has to keep up to date with the required skills and knowledge in order to be a competent and effective counsellor. Although the guidance counsellors are reaping some success in schools, they are faced with existing challenges which affects the effective performance of their daily tasks. Myrick (2003) thinks that the individual counselling is becoming a luxury in schools. It cannot be provided for everyone. He further states that some students need this more than others because of the nature of their concerns and their inability to work with groups.In essence, counsellors face limitations to effectively cater to every student. Counsellors do not have enough time to see all. Guidance c ounsellors are also seen as coordinators of many activities and programmes within the school setting. They are responsible for a number of administrative work involving students, teachers, parents and all the stakeholders involved. This role in itself impedes the speed and progress of other important roles. It may lead to an overworked counsellor and an unbalanced counselling programme.Myrick (2003), points out that the coordinating functions of can be a millstone round a counsellor’s neck, or it can lead to some productive outcomes in guidance. Counsellors are seen as teachers with flexible time and so at times there is disregard for the structured plans and routine of a guidance counsellor as he or she is often called up onto fill in as a substitute teacher in the absence of a regular class teacher. Another problem that counsellors face is that of the increase in the violence in the society which is then mirrored in the Jamaican schools. Counsellors are limited to their job s as it is often difficult for them to gain access to the root cause of the problems involving violence in the schools.Students who are exposed to violence in their communities may begin to adapt to this kind of life experience and sometimes may even accept violence as the norm. Although the guidance counsellors use their initiatives to encourage students in situations like these at times their efforts seem to go unnoticed The limitations and challenges also extend to the lack of or insufficient resources in schools. For the counselling process to be effective the counsellor should be provided with certain basic essentials such as a comfortable counselling area in which to practice.Counsellors are sometimes hesitant to pursue difficult cases involving students especially as it relates to criminal offences. Counsellors are often apprehensive of the repercussions which may arise when reports are made against persons who commit crimes against children. With the inadequacy of our legal system, counsellors sometimes have to think of the safety and well being of themselves and their families. The roles and functions of a guidance counsellor are many and varied and sometimes extend to areas undefined; however as a guidance counsellor one must ensure that his or her role is carried out comprehensively and effectively.All the roles mentioned are specific to all counsellors but may vary depending on the type of school. The finding in this research outlines and gives definite answers relating to some roles and functions of the guidance counsellor within the Jamaican schools. The roles identified include providing education counselling, career counselling, consultation, classroom instruction, individual and group counselling. It can be concluded that the role of the guidance counsellor is important for the continued development of the students in our school and in effect the continued development of our Jamaican society.Reference Gladding,T. (2009). A comprehensive Profes sion. New Jersey Gibson, L. (1999). Introduction to Counselling and Guidance. United States of America Prentice Hall Inc. Mankind, O (1993). Fundamentals of Guidance and Counselling London Oxford Mack Millan Education Myrick, D (2003). Development Guidance and Counselling: A Practical Approach. 4th Edition. United States of America: Education Media Corporation. Ministry of Education Guidance Counselling Unit

Charles Richter, Inventor of the Richter Magnitude Scale

Seismic waves are the vibrations from earthquakes that travel through the Earth; they are recorded on instruments called seismographs. Seismographs record a zig-zag trace that shows the varying amplitude of ground oscillations beneath the instrument. Sensitive seismographs, which greatly magnify these ground motions, can detect strong earthquakes from sources anywhere in the world. The time, locations, and magnitude of an earthquake can be determined from the data recorded by seismograph stations. The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes. The magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs. Adjustments are included for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquakes. On the Richter Scale, magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and decimal fractions. For example, a magnitude 5.3 might be computed for a moderate earthquake, and a strong earthquake might be rated as magnitude 6.3. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; as an estimate of energy, each whole number step in the magnitude scale corresponds to the release of about 31 times more energy than the amount associated with the preceding whole number value. At first, the Richter Scale could be applied only to the records from instruments of identical manufacture. Now, instruments are carefully calibrated with respect to each other. Thus, magnitude can be computed from the record of any calibrated seismograph. Earthquakes with magnitude of about 2.0 or less are usually called microearthquakes; they are not commonly felt by people and are generally recorded only on local seismographs. Events with magnitudes of about 4.5 or greater—there are several thousand such shocks annually—are strong enough to be recorded by sensitive seismographs all over the world. Great earthquakes, such as the 1964 Good Friday earthquake in Alaska, have magnitudes of 8.0 or higher. On average, one earthquake of such size occurs somewhere in the world each year. The Richter Scale has no upper limit. Recently, another scale called the moment magnitude scale has been devised for more precise study of great earthquakes. The Richter Scale is not used to express damage. An earthquake in a densely populated area which results in many deaths and considerable damage may have the same magnitude as a shock in a remote area that does nothing more than frighten the wildlife. Large-magnitude earthquakes that occur beneath the oceans may not even be felt by humans. NEIS Interview The following is a transcript of an NEIS interview with Charles Richter: How did you become interested in seismology?CHARLES RICHTER: It was really a happy accident. At Caltech, I was working on my Ph.D. in theoretical physics under Dr. Robert Millikan. One day he called me into his office and said that the Seismological Laboratory was looking for a physicist; this was not my line, but was I at all interested? I talked with Harry Wood who was in charge of the lab; and, as a result, I joined his staff in 1927. What were the origins of the instrumental magnitude scale?CHARLES RICHTER: When I joined Mr. Woods staff, I was mainly engaged in the routine work of measuring seismograms and locating earthquakes, so that a catalog could be set up of epicenters and times of occurrence. Incidentally, seismology owes a largely unacknowledged debt to the persistent efforts of Harry O. Wood for bringing about the seismological program in southern California. At the time, Mr. Wood was collaborating with Maxwell Alien on a historical review of earthquakes in California. We were recording on seven widely spaced stations, all with Wood-Anderson torsion seismographs. What modifications were involved in applying the scale to worldwide earthquakes?CHARLES RICHTER: Youre quite rightly pointing out that the original magnitude scale which I published in 1935 was set up only for southern California and for the particular types of seismographs in use there. Extending the scale to worldwide earthquakes and to recordings on other instruments was begun in 1936 in collaboration with Dr. Gutenberg. This involved using the reported amplitudes of surface waves with periods of about 20 seconds. Incidentally, the usual designation of the magnitude scale to my name does less than justice to the great part that Dr. Gutenberg played in extending the scale to apply to earthquakes in all parts of the world. Many people have the wrong impression that the Richter magnitude is based on a scale of 10.CHARLES RICHTER: I repeatedly have to correct this belief. In a sense, magnitude involves steps of 10 because every increase of one magnitude represents a tenfold amplification of the ground motion. But there is no scale of 10 in the sense of an upper limit as there is for intensity scales; indeed, Im glad to see the press now referring to the open-ended Richter scale. Magnitude numbers simply represent measurement from a seismograph record—logarithmic to be sure but with no implied ceiling. The highest magnitudes assigned so far to actual earthquakes are about 9, but that is a limitation in the Earth, not in the scale. There is another common misapprehension that the magnitude scale is itself some kind of instrument or apparatus. Visitors will frequently ask to see the scale. Theyre disconcerted by being referred to tables and charts that are used for applying the scale to readings taken from the seismograms. No doubt you are often asked about the difference between magnitude and intensity.CHARLES RICHTER: That also causes great confusion among the public. I like to use the analogy with radio transmissions. It applies in seismology because seismographs, or the receivers, record the waves of elastic disturbance, or radio waves, that are radiated from the earthquake source, or the broadcasting station. Magnitude can be compared to the power output in kilowatts of a broadcasting station. Local intensity on the Mercalli scale is then comparable to the signal strength on a receiver at a given locality; in effect, the quality of the signal. Intensity like signal strength will generally fall off with distance from the source, although it also depends on the local conditions and the pathway from the source to the point. There has been interest recently in reassessing what is meant by the size of an earthquake.CHARLES RICHTER: Refining is inevitable in science when you have made measurements of a phenomenon for a long period of time. Our original intent was to define magnitude strictly in terms of instrumental observations. If one introduces the concept of energy of an earthquake then that is a theoretically derived quantity. If the assumptions used in calculating energy are changed, then this seriously affects the final result, even though the same body of data might be used. So we tried to keep the interpretation of the size of the earthquake as closely tied to the actual instrument observations involved as possible. What emerged, of course, was that the magnitude scale presupposed that all earthquakes were alike except for a constant scaling factor. And this proved to be closer to the truth than we expected.